The Achaemenid Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around half a century earlier, had grown into a colossal realm stretching from Northern India to Southeastern Europe. Under the rule of King Darius I, the empire experienced astonishing territorial expansion. Darius, a skilled military strategist and statesman, aimed to expand his empire even further.
The Persian strategy for incorporating new territories was to integrate the local populations into their administrative and military structures. While top military positions were typically reserved for Medes and Persians, the Persian army was impressively diverse. This inclusive policy contributed to the seemingly unstoppable advance of the empire.
Trouble in Ionia
Among the Persian subjects were the Ionian Greeks, living in Western Anatolia. Although expected to support the empire, the Ionians grew increasingly resentful due to high taxation and strict trade controls. Tensions reached a critical point during Darius’s 512 BCE campaign against the Scythians in the Danube Valley. Darius ordered the Ionians to guard a crucial bridge for his supply lines. After suffering defeat, his army retreated, and one Ionian commander, Histiaeus, proposed destroying the bridge to trap Darius. However, the other commanders overruled him, and Darius escaped. The betrayal did not go unnoticed.
Histiaeus fled to Athens and entered politics, but his actions deepened Persian distrust of the Ionians. By 499 BCE, tensions exploded into open rebellion.
The Ionian Revolt and Athenian Involvement
In 499 BCE, the Ionian Revolt broke out. Recognizing their disadvantage against a vast empire, the rebels sought help from Greek city-states. Sparta refused, but Athens sent 20 warships and Eretria sent five more. The rebels managed to burn Sardis, Persia’s key stronghold in Anatolia. However, they were soon crushed at the Battle of Lade in 494 BCE due to internal divisions.
Darius was now determined to punish those who had supported the rebellion—especially Athens, where his old enemy Miltiades had become a prominent political figure.
The First Persian Invasion of Greece
In 492 BCE, Darius prepared a massive fleet to invade Greece, but a storm destroyed it. After two years of rebuilding, he launched another expedition in 490 BCE. This fleet, consisting of 600 ships and around 25,000 troops, landed near Eretria, which was swiftly captured and razed.
Next, the Persians turned toward Athens, landing at Marathon to lure the Athenian army away from the city. The Athenians sent urgent pleas for help. Sparta, due to religious observances, could not send troops immediately. Only the small city of Plataea responded, contributing about 1,000 soldiers.
The Battle of Marathon
Miltiades, the former Persian adversary, took command of the Athenian forces. Facing overwhelming odds, the Greeks positioned themselves on high ground, forming a phalanx nearly a mile wide. Their formation had reinforced flanks and a deliberately weakened center.
The Persians, with superior numbers and a mixed army of infantry, archers, and cavalry, waited near the shore. A stalemate ensued for several days, during which part of the Persian force sailed toward Athens. Once news of Eretria’s fall reached the Greek camp, the Athenians realized that time was running out.
On September 12, Miltiades launched a bold attack. The Persian cavalry had temporarily moved to a northern watering point, leaving their infantry vulnerable.
A Stunning Greek Victory
The Athenian hoplites charged, enduring a barrage of arrows and javelins. At first, the center faltered under the Persian assault, but the strong Greek flanks quickly overwhelmed the Persian sides. As the flanks closed inward, they encircled the Persian center, creating chaos. The Persian troops began to flee toward their ships, with Greek soldiers in close pursuit.
Fierce fighting continued on the beaches as the Greeks tried to prevent the Persians from escaping. In total, the Persians lost approximately 6,400 men, while the Greeks suffered only about 200 casualties. It was a stunning and complete victory.
The Aftermath and Legacy
Despite their defeat, the Persian fleet sailed toward Athens, hoping to capture the city before news of the Greek victory arrived. According to legend, a runner named Pheidippides covered 42 kilometers to deliver the message of victory to Athens, collapsing and dying upon arrival.
The Battle of Marathon was a turning point. It not only prevented a Persian foothold in mainland Greece but also boosted Greek confidence. Sparta, impressed by Athens’ bravery, praised their victory.
Though the Persians were repelled, their ambitions were not extinguished. They would return, leading to further battles—including the legendary clash at Salamis.
