Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), a Roman orator and statesman, was born into a wealthy local family in Arpinum. Educated in Rome with a public career in mind, he became the leading barrister by 70 BCE. His political ambitions led to his election as praetor in 66 BCE and consul in 63 BCE, despite not being from the Roman aristocracy. His unwavering principles and refusal to compromise often hindered his political success, yet his ideals were more honorable than those of many contemporaries.
Cicero was the greatest Roman orator, mastering rhetoric and the Latin language. He published his speeches, which significantly influenced European thought and provided valuable insights into Roman political and social life. His extensive correspondence, including 900 letters published posthumously, revealed his emotions and intellectual reflections. His writings covered moral and political philosophy, religion, and rhetorical theory, offering a deep understanding of his thoughts.
His political speeches remain crucial historical sources, shedding light on the late Roman Republic. This period was marked by Rome’s unprecedented expansion, yet its government struggled to manage a vast empire. Tacitus later reflected on this era, remarking on the rarity of free thought and speech.
Unlike many historical figures, Cicero’s personality and opinions are well-documented. His devotion to politics overshadowed all else, but his vision of an ideal Republic was nostalgic and impractical. Inspired by Greek models, he envisioned a balanced government led by an elite few. However, the Republic he idealized never truly existed. His speeches, while brilliant, often exhibited excessive self-praise, which even his contemporaries found excessive.
Despite his vanity, Cicero’s philosophical and rhetorical writings show a more modest thinker. He was intelligent, peace-loving, and free from envy, though often timid and indecisive. His exceptional oratory skills were central to Roman public life, where speech held immense power. Derived from Greek traditions, rhetoric was vital for political and legal discourse. Cicero mastered all three rhetorical styles—plain, grand, and middle—making him an unparalleled public speaker.
Cicero emphasized the necessity of broad knowledge for effective rhetoric, agreeing with Aristotle that philosophy and oratory were intertwined. He believed an orator must be both learned and virtuous, reflecting the Roman view that eloquence and moral character were inseparable. His speeches showcased his ability to sway audiences, often relying on emotion over reason. His commanding presence and voice further amplified his impact.
However, Cicero’s rhetorical brilliance sometimes clashed with his ethical ideals. He occasionally defended dubious causes for political gain, though he remained among the most principled of his peers. His political career was shaped by his allegiance to the Senate and the equestrian order, seeking harmony between these factions.
The Roman Senate, a body of about 600 members, held significant influence despite being officially advisory. By Cicero’s time, the knights (equites) had gained power, challenging the Senate’s authority. Cicero, the son of a knight, sought to mediate between these groups. Senate meetings were private, though doors remained open. The Assembly, theoretically sovereign, had little real power, but skilled orators could sway its decisions. Cicero, compared by Virgil to Neptune calming a storm, excelled in commanding public attention.
In the law courts, Cicero was unparalleled. Rome’s judiciary evolved in the 2nd century BCE, with permanent criminal courts emerging. Judges, initially senators, were later drawn from knights and other elite groups. The courts, though political, showcased Roman legal expertise. Cicero’s courtroom performances were masterful, though often laden with invective and exaggeration.
Cicero’s published speeches were polished versions of his actual orations, transformed into literary masterpieces. While modern historians seek unfiltered records, the ancients valued oratory as a literary art. His speeches, surviving while others faded, shaped Western rhetoric for millennia. His legacy endures as a testament to the power of eloquence and intellect in shaping history.
