In late January 2011, peaceful protests began across Syria, calling for an end to Bashar al-Assad’s rule. These demonstrations were inspired by the so-called Arab Spring, a wave of protests in Middle Eastern and Arab nations against absolute monarchies and long-standing presidents. Syrians were demanding what Tunisians and Egyptians had just achieved, and what Libyans were fighting for—comprehensive political reform.
On Tuesday, March 15, 2011, uprisings erupted in the capital city, Damascus, as the people’s demands remained unmet. By July, protesters began to arm themselves, and some Syrian army members defected to form the Free Syrian Army, a group intent on overthrowing Assad. The situation quickly descended into civil war.
Throughout 2011, Syrian rebel groups made significant gains in western Syria, and by 2012, the rebels had expanded their control. By mid-2012, the Kurdish population in the north and northeast seized territory as large portions of the Syrian government’s army retreated to defend key cities like Damascus. The rebels continued to capture more areas in the northwest, and by late 2012, they gained territory in the southeast, although they failed to capture the key city of Deir ez-Zor, which managed to resist rebel forces.
The conflict took a decisive turn in 2013 when it became more than just a struggle between the rebels and the Syrian government. The rise of ISIS changed the landscape dramatically. It’s important to note that not all rebel factions were moderate; many were extremist groups labeled as terrorist organizations by various nations. This fractured the rebel alliance, much like in Libya, as different groups vied for control after Assad’s removal. This internal conflict raised the prospect of continued war even if Assad was ousted.
In early 2013, the U.S. began arming rebels in opposition to Assad, but many of these weapons unknowingly ended up in the hands of radical groups. Around the same time, ISIS split from al-Qaeda and began seizing territory in Iraq and Syria, committing atrocities that rallied global condemnation. By 2013, the U.S. shifted its focus from supporting the rebels to confronting ISIS, which had no true allies aside from a few radical factions with whom they had uneasy relationships. ISIS’s goal was to establish a harsh, ultra-conservative Islamic state, killing both non-Muslims and Muslims who didn’t align with their extreme ideology.
ISIS’s violent expansion spilled into Lebanon, which had previously stayed out of the conflict. The Lebanese army eventually repelled the terrorists, but the group’s rise underscored the growing regional involvement in the Syrian war. Iran, a key ally of Assad, sent Hezbollah, a Lebanese militia, to support the Syrian government against both ISIS and the rebels. This intervention highlighted a rivalry between Iran, a Shia-majority country, and Sunni-majority Saudi Arabia, as both sought influence in Syria.
Meanwhile, Russia, another of Assad’s key allies, began bombing rebel-held areas in support of the Syrian government, targeting both U.S.-backed rebels and ISIS. Russia’s primary interest in Syria was its two military bases—the naval facility in Tartus and the Khmeimim airbase. Keeping Syria stable under Assad would protect these strategic interests. Iraq, another neighboring country, became directly involved after ISIS took control of territory along the Iraq-Syria border. By 2017, Iraq had driven ISIS out of its borders and began supporting Syrian forces in bombing ISIS positions in eastern Syria.
Israel’s involvement in the conflict was indirect, stemming from its occupation of the Golan Heights, a region it seized from Syria decades earlier. Israel also provided humanitarian aid to Syrian civilians affected by the war. Meanwhile, Gulf states like Saudi Arabia and the UAE supported the rebels, even arming extremist factions, primarily because they sought to oust Assad, a key ally of Iran.
The Syrian conflict also mirrored a Cold War-like standoff between the West and Russia. The U.S., Britain, and France supported moderate rebels, hoping to replace Assad with a government less likely to foster terrorism. However, Russia’s support for Assad created tensions reminiscent of Cold War-era divisions. U.S. military aid to the rebels sometimes unintentionally reached extremist groups, while Russian airstrikes targeted both these groups and anti-Assad factions.
Turkey’s role in the conflict is particularly complex. Initially, Turkey supported the rebels diplomatically, but as the conflict dragged on, relations between Turkey and Syria worsened. Turkey began harboring moderate Syrian rebels, while simultaneously dealing with millions of Syrian refugees within its borders. Turkey’s concerns also extended to the Syrian Kurdish forces, who had grown stronger in northern Syria. Turkey feared that these Kurds would align with Kurdish separatists in Turkey itself, so in 2016, Turkey directly intervened, invading northern Syria to expel ISIS and prevent the Syrian Kurds from consolidating power. This move also aimed to create a safe zone for resettling Syrian refugees.
However, Turkey’s ambitions were complicated by the presence of U.S. troops in northern Syria. When then-U.S. President Donald Trump withdrew American forces from the region in 2019, Turkey took advantage, launching an offensive against the Kurds. This chaotic invasion weakened Kurdish forces and allowed many imprisoned ISIS fighters to escape.
The multi-sided nature of the Syrian Civil War, with numerous countries involved both directly and indirectly, has created a conflict that extends far beyond Syria’s borders. The involvement of so many actors with differing objectives has made it difficult to find a solution, and civilians continue to suffer as the war drags on. In February 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden ordered airstrikes on Iranian-backed militia groups in Syria, further complicating the situation. As long as international interests remain entangled in the conflict, it remains challenging to envision a resolution anytime soon.
